English

Sulfur Cathode Electrocatalysis in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: A Comprehensive Understanding

• Tao Wang ^1, ,
• Qin Dong ^1, ,
• Cunpu Li ^{1, 2, ,} ,
• Zidong Wei ^{1, 2, ,}

• 1.

  College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

• 2.

  Suining Lithium Battery Research Institute of Chongqing University (SLiBaC), Suining 629000, Sichuan Province, China

Corresponding author: Email: lcp@cqu.edu.cn (C.L.); Email: zdwei@cqu.edu.cn (Z.W.)

• Received Date: 31 March 2023
  Accepted Date: 28 April 2023
  Revised Date: 27 April 2023
  Available Online: 15 February 2024
• Fund Project:

  the National Natural Science Foundation of China 

  the National Natural Science Foundation of China 

  the National Natural Science Foundation of China 

Abstract: Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have emerged as promising candidates for next-generation secondary power batteries given that they exhibit extremely high discharge specific capacity (1672 mAh·g⁻¹) when sulfur is used as the positive electrode. Despite the potential of Li-S batteries for commercial applications, two significant issues need to be addressed: the shuttle effect of dissolved high-order lithium polysulfides (Li₂S_n, 4 ≤ n ≤ 8) during charge/discharge processes and the slow redox kinetics of sulfur species. Fortunately, the introduction of electrochemical catalysis is an effective strategy to mitigate the above problems. In the context of electrochemical catalysis, in this paper we discuss the existence forms of polysulfides and draw clear conclusions. Specifically, in ether electrolyte systems, the dominant form of polysulfide is the neutral molecule, while a smaller proportion exists as anions and cations. In addition, we also propose the corresponding solutions for different forms of polysulfides. Unlike previous reports, we analyze the conversion mechanism of polysulfides from two perspectives: adsorption-catalysis and reactive intermediates. In terms of the strength of the interaction force between the substrate materials and polysulfides, adsorption-catalysis can be classified into physisorption-catalysis and chemisorption-catalysis. The differences between both types are analyzed and discussed in-depth. Additionally, the reactive intermediates are further classified into sulfur free radicals, thiosulfates, and organosulfur molecules based on different electrochemical reaction pathways. The mechanisms involved in the reactions of these intermediates are subsequently analyzed in detail. We also evaluate different strategies and list the types of catalysts that may correspond to each mechanism. Finally, the quantitative evaluation method of catalytic performance is also summarized, which paves a new way for the design of high-efficiency electrocatalysts in Li-S batteries. The nucleation transformation ratio (NTR) is a quantitative measure we developed to assess the catalytic properties of materials. When the reaction is ideal, the NTR should be equal to 3. A calculated NTR close to 3 indicates that the reaction from Li₂S₆ to Li₂S₄ occurs rapidly, suggesting that the material is highly catalytic to polysulfide nucleation. This quantitative approach enables researchers to determine the adsorption and catalytic effects of cathode materials on polysulfides, allowing the study of lithium-sulfur battery cathode materials to move from qualitative description to quantitative evaluation with specific factors. As a result, we can move from a qualitative description of lithium-sulfur battery cathode materials to their quantitative evaluation.

Key words:
• Lithium-sulfur battery
•  /  Catalytic conversion
•  /  Electrocatalysis
•  /  Chemical adsorption
•  /  Sulfur radical

• 1. [1]

     Ji, X.; Lee, K. T.; Nazar, L. F. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 500. doi: 10.1038/nmat2460

  2. [2]

     Liang, C.; Dudney, N. J.; Howe, J. Y. Chem. Mater. 2009, 21, 4724. doi: 10.1021/cm902050j

  3. [3]

     Elazari, R.; Salitra, G.; Garsuch, A.; Panchenko, A.; Aurbach, D. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 5641. doi: 10.1002/adma.201103274

  4. [4]

     Ji, L.; Rao, M.; Zheng, H.; Zhang, L.; Li, Y.; Duan, W.; Guo, J.; Cairns, E. J.; Zhang, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 18522. doi: 10.1021/ja206955k

  5. [5]

     Shi, Z.; Sun, Z.; Cai, J.; Yang, X.; Wei, C.; Wang, M.; Ding, Y.; Sun, J. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, e2103050. doi: 10.1002/adma.202103050

  6. [6]

     Sun, Z.; Zhang, J.; Yin, L.; Hu, G.; Fang, R.; Cheng, H. M.; Li, F. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 14627. doi: 10.1038/ncomms14627

  7. [7]

     Li, D.; Han, F.; Wang, S.; Cheng, F.; Sun, Q.; Li, W. C. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2013, 5, 2208. doi: 10.1021/am4000535

  8. [8]

     Zheng, Y.; Zheng, S.; Xue, H.; Pang, H. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019, 7, 3469. doi: 10.1039/c8ta11075a

  9. [9]

     Du, Z.; Chen, X.; Hu, W.; Chuang, C.; Xie, S.; Hu, A.; Yan, W.; Kong, X.; Wu, X.; Ji, H.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 3977. doi: 10.1021/jacs.8b12973

  10. [10]

      Xiao, D.; Li, Q.; Zhang, H.; Ma, Y.; Lu, C.; Chen, C.; Liu, Y.; Yuan, S. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 24901. doi: 10.1039/c7ta08483h

  11. [11]

      Zhu, J.; Cao, J.; Cai, G.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, W.; Xie, S.; Wang, J.; Jin, H.; Xu, J.; Ji, H.; et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202214351. doi: 10.1002/anie.202214351

  12. [12]

      Lu, Y. Q.; Wu, Y. J.; Sheng, T.; Peng, X. X.; Gao, Z. G.; Zhang, S. J.; Deng, L.; Nie, R.; Swiatowska, J.; Li, J. T.; et al. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 13499. doi: 10.1021/acsami.8b00915

  13. [13]

      Deng, D. R.; Xue, F.; Jia, Y. J.; Ye, J. C.; Bai, C. D.; Zheng, M. S.; Dong, Q. F. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 6031. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b01945

  14. [14]

      Zhang, H.; Zhao, Z.; Hou, Y. N.; Tang, Y.; Liang, J.; Liu, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, X.; Qiu, J. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019, 7, 9230. doi: 10.1039/c9ta00975b

  15. [15]

      Zhao, M.; Peng, H. J.; Li, B. Q.; Chen, X.; Xie, J.; Liu, X.; Zhang, Q.; Huang, J. Q. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 9011. doi: 10.1002/anie.202003136

  16. [16]

      Zhang, Y.; Mu, Z.; Yang, C.; Xu, Z.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, X.; Li, Y.; Lai, J.; Sun, Z.; Yang, Y.; et al. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018, 28, 1707578. doi: 10.1002/adfm.201707578

  17. [17]

      Zhang, D.; Wang, S.; Hu, R.; Gu, J.; Cui, Y.; Li, B.; Chen, W.; Liu, C.; Shang, J.; Yang, S. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2002471. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202002471

  18. [18]

      Wang, Z.; Shen, J.; Liu, J.; Xu, X.; Liu, Z.; Hu, R.; Yang, L.; Feng, Y.; Liu, J.; Shi, Z.; et al. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, e1902228. doi: 10.1002/adma.201902228

  19. [19]

      Zhou, J.; Liu, X.; Zhu, L.; Zhou, J.; Guan, Y.; Chen, L.; Niu, S.; Cai, J.; Sun, D.; Zhu, Y.; et al. Joule 2018, 2, 2681. doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2018.08.010

  20. [20]

      Li, R.; Shen, H.; Pervaiz, E.; Yang, M. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 404, 126462. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.126462

  21. [21]

      Sul, H.; Bhargav, A.; Manthiram, A. Adv. Energy Mater. 2022, 12, 2200680. doi: 10.1002/aenm.202200680

  22. [22]

      Zhao, Q.; Zhu, Q.; Liu, Y.; Xu, B. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2100457. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202100457

  23. [23]

      Yang, H.; Guo, C.; Chen, J.; Naveed, A.; Yang, J.; Nuli, Y.; Wang, J. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2019, 58, 791. doi: 10.1002/anie.201811291

  24. [24]

      Mikhaylik, Y. V.; Akridge, J. R. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2004, 151, A1969. doi: 10.1149/1.1806394

  25. [25]

      Urbonaite, S.; Poux, T.; Novák, P. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1500118. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201500118

  26. [26]

      Gao, Y.; Guo, Q.; Zhang, Q.; Cui, Y.; Zheng, Z. Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2002580. doi: 10.1002/aenm.202002580

  27. [27]

      Deng, N.; Liu, Y.; Li, Q.; Yan, J.; Lei, W.; Wang, G.; Wang, L.; Liang, Y.; Kang, W.; Cheng, B. Energy Storage Mater. 2019, 23, 314. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.04.042

  28. [28]

      Rosenman, A.; Markevich, E.; Salitra, G.; Aurbach, D.; Garsuch, A.; Chesneau, F. F. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1500212. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201500212

  29. [29]

      Urbonaite, S.; Novák, P. J. Power Sources 2014, 249, 497. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.10.095

  30. [30]

      Gao, X.; Sun, Q.; Yang, X.; Liang, J.; Koo, A.; Li, W.; Liang, J.; Wang, J.; Li, R.; Holness, F. B.; et al. Nano Energy 2019, 56, 595. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.12.001

  31. [31]

      Meini, S.; Elazari, R.; Rosenman, A.; Garsuch, A.; Aurbach, D. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 915. doi: 10.1021/jz500222f

  32. [32]

      Rosenman, A.; Elazari, R.; Salitra, G.; Markevich, E.; Aurbach, D.; Garsuch, A. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A470. doi: 10.1149/2.0861503jes

  33. [33]

      Wang, P.; Xi, B.; Huang, M.; Chen, W.; Feng, J.; Xiong, S. Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2002893. doi: 10.1002/aenm.202002893

  34. [34]

      Sun, Z.; Vijay, S.; Heenen, H. H.; Eng, A. Y. S.; Tu, W.; Zhao, Y.; Koh, S. W.; Gao, P.; Seh, Z. W.; Chan, K.; et al. Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 1904010. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201904010

  35. [35]

      Zhang, H.; Tian, D.; Zhao, Z.; Liu, X.; Hou, Y. N.; Tang, Y.; Liang, J.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, X.; Qiu, J. Energy Storage Mater. 2019, 21, 210. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2018.12.005

  36. [36]

      Lim, W. G.; Kim, S.; Jo, C.; Lee, J. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2019, 58, 18746. doi: 10.1002/anie.201902413

  37. [37]

      刘帅, 姚路, 章琴, 李路路, 胡南滔, 魏良明, 魏浩. 物理化学学报, 2017, 33, 2339. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201706021Liu, S.; Yao, L.; Zhang, Q.; Li, L. L.; Hu, N. T.; Wei, L. M.; Wei, H. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2017, 33, 2339. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201706021

  38. [38]

      王晶晶, 曹贵强, 段瑞贤, 李向阳, 李喜飞. 物理化学学报, 2023, 39, 2212005. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202212005Wang, J. J.; Cao, G. Q.; Duan, R. X.; Li, X. Y.; Li, X. F. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2023, 39, 2212005. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202212005

  39. [39]

      张梦迪, 陈蓓, 吴明铂. 物理化学学报, 2022, 38, 2101001. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202101001Zhang, M. D.; Chen, B.; Wu, M. B. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2022, 38, 2101001. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202101001

  40. [40]

      Liu, Y.; Zhang, S.; Qin, X.; Kang, F.; Chen, G.; Li, B. Nano Lett. 2019, 19, 4601. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b01567

  41. [41]

      Li, Y.; Zhan, H.; Liu, S.; Huang, K.; Zhou, Y. J. Power Sources 2010, 195, 2945. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.11.004

  42. [42]

      Sun, K.; Zhang, Q.; Bock, D. C.; Tong, X.; Su, D.; Marschilok, A. C.; Takeuchi, K. J.; Takeuchi, E. S.; Gan, H. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2017, 164, A1291. doi: 10.1149/2.1631706jes

  43. [43]

      Wang, W. P.; Zhang, J.; Yin, Y. X.; Duan, H.; Chou, J.; Li, S. Y.; Yan, M.; Xin, S.; Guo, Y. G. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, e2000302. doi: 10.1002/adma.202000302

  44. [44]

      Cao, G.; Duan, R.; Li, X. J. Energy Chem 2023, 5, 100096. doi: 10.1016/j.enchem.2022.100096

  45. [45]

      Martin, R.; Doub, W., Jr.; Roberts, J., Jr.; Sawyer, D. Inorg. Chem. 1973, 4, 1921. doi: 10.1002/chin.197339037

  46. [46]

      Rajput, N. N.; Murugesan, V.; Shin, Y.; Han, K. S.; Lau, K. C.; Chen, J.; Liu, J.; Curtiss, L. A.; Mueller, K. T.; Persson, K. A. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 3375. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00068

  47. [47]

      Zhang, B.; Wu, J.; Gu, J.; Li, S.; Yan, T.; Gao, X. P. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6, 537. doi: 10.1021/acsenergylett.0c02527

  48. [48]

      Song, Y. W.; Shen, L.; Yao, N.; Li, X. Y.; Bi, C. X.; Li, Z.; Zhou, M. Y.; Li, B. Q.; Huang, J. Q.; Zhang, Q. Chem 2022, 8, 3031. doi: 10.1016/j.chempr.2022.07.004

  49. [49]

      Luo, Y.; Fang, Z.; Duan, S.; Wu, H.; Liu, H.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, K.; Li, Q.; Fan, S.; Wang, J.; et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202215802. doi: 10.1002/anie.202215802

  50. [50]

      Zheng, S.; Wen, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Han, Z.; Wang, J.; Yang, J.; Wang, C. Adv. Energy Mater. 2014, 4, 1400482. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201400482

  51. [51]

      Wang, Q.; Zheng, J.; Walter, E.; Pan, H.; Lv, D.; Zuo, P.; Chen, H.; Deng, Z. D.; Liaw, B. Y.; Yu, X. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A474. doi: 10.1149/2.0851503jes

  52. [52]

      Zhang, G.; Peng, H. J.; Zhao, C. Z.; Chen, X.; Zhao, L. D.; Li, P.; Huang, J. Q.; Zhang, Q. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2018, 57, 16732. doi: 10.1002/anie.201810132

  53. [53]

      Hu, J.; Long, G.; Liu, S.; Li, G.; Gao, X. Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 14647. doi: 10.1039/C4CC06666A

  54. [54]

      Yao, W.; Tian, C.; Yang, C.; Xu, J.; Meng, Y.; Manke, I.; Chen, N.; Wu, Z.; Zhan, L.; Wang, Y.; et al. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, e2106370. doi: 10.1002/adma.202106370

  55. [55]

      Wang, R.; Yang, J.; Chen, X.; Zhao, Y.; Zhao, W.; Qian, G.; Li, S.; Xiao, Y.; Chen, H.; Ye, Y.; et al. Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 1903550. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201903550

  56. [56]

      Qiao, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Meng, Z.; Xie, Q.; Lin, L.; Zheng, H.; Sa, B.; Lin, J.; Wang, L.; Peng, D. L. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2100970. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202100970

  57. [57]

      Yu, H.; Zhang, B.; Sun, F.; Jiang, G.; Zheng, N.; Xu, C.; Li, Y. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 450, 364. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.04.123

  58. [58]

      Wang, J.; Yang, J.; Wan, C.; Du, K.; Xie, J.; Xu, N. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2003, 13, 487. doi: 10.1002/adfm.200304284

  59. [59]

      Zhang, Q.; Wang, Y.; Seh, Z. W.; Fu, Z.; Zhang, R.; Cui, Y. Nano Lett. 2015, 15, 3780. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00367

  60. [60]

      Chen, X.; Peng, H. J.; Zhang, R.; Hou, T. Z.; Huang, J. Q.; Li, B.; Zhang, Q. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 795. doi: 10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00164

  61. [61]

      Tao, X.; Wang, J.; Liu, C.; Wang, H.; Yao, H.; Zheng, G.; Seh, Z. W.; Cai, Q.; Li, W.; Zu, C. X.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7, 11203. doi: 10.1038/ncomms11203

  62. [62]

      Fu, A.; Wang, C.; Pei, F.; Cui, J.; Fang, X.; Zheng, N. Small 2019, 15, 1804786. doi: 10.1002/smll.201804786

  63. [63]

      Peng, X. X.; Lu, Y. Q.; Zhou, L. L.; Sheng, T.; Shen, S. Y.; Liao, H. G.; Huang, L.; Li, J. T.; Sun, S. G. Nano Energy 2017, 32, 503. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.12.060

  64. [64]

      Tao, Y.; Wei, Y.; Liu, Y.; Wang, J.; Qiao, W.; Ling, L.; Long, D. H. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 3230. doi: 10.1039/C6EE01662F

  65. [65]

      Pang, Q.; Nazar, L. F. ACS Nano 2016, 10, 4111. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b07347

  66. [66]

      Liu, J.; Li, W.; Duan, L.; Li, X.; Ji, L.; Geng, Z.; Huang, K.; Lu, L.; Zhou, L.; Liu, Z. R. Nano Lett. 2015, 15, 5137. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01919

  67. [67]

      Ma, F.; Liang, J.; Wang, T.; Chen, X.; Fan, Y.; Hultman, B.; Xie, H.; Han, J.; Wu, G.; Li, Q. Nano Lett. 2018, 10, 5634. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03325

  68. [68]

      Wang, C.; Li, K.; Zhang, F.; Wu, Z.; Sun, L.; Wang, L. M. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 42286. doi: 10.1021/acsami.8b15176

  69. [69]

      Liu, Y. T.; Han, D. D.; Wang, L.; Li, G. R.; Liu, S.; Gao, X. P. Adv. Energy Mater. 2019, 9, 1803477. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201803477

  70. [70]

      Zheng, C.; Niu, S.; Lv, W.; Zhou, G.; Li, J.; Fan, S.; Deng, Y.; Pan, Z.; Li, B.; Kang, F.; Yang, Q. H. Nano Energy 2017, 33, 306. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.01.040

  71. [71]

      Liu, G.; Wang, W.; Zeng, P.; Yuan, C.; Wang, L.; Li, H.; Zhang, H.; Sun, X.; Dai, K.; Mao, J.; et al. . Nano Lett. 2022, 22, 6366. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c02183

  72. [72]

      Hou, T. Z.; Xu, W. T.; Chen, X.; Peng, H. J.; Huang, J. Q.; Zhang, Q. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 8178. doi: 10.1002/anie.201704324

  73. [73]

      Chen, X.; Bai, Y. K.; Zhao, C. Z.; Shen, X.; Zhang, Q. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 11192. doi: 10.1002/anie.201915623

  74. [74]

      Evers, S.; Yim, T.; Nazar, L. F. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116, 19653. doi: 10.1021/jp304380j

  75. [75]

      Zhang, M.; Chen, W.; Xue, L.; Jiao, Y.; Lei, T.; Chu, J.; Huang, J.; Gong, C.; Yan, C.; Yan, Y. Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 1903008. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201903008

  76. [76]

      Hong, X.; Wang, R.; Liu, Y.; Fu, J.; Liang, J.; Dou, S. J. Energy Chem. 2020, 42, 144. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2019.07.001

  77. [77]

      Wang, X.; Gao, T.; Han, F.; Ma, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Li, J.; Wang, C. Nano Energy 2016, 30, 700. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.10.049

  78. [78]

      Wang, Y.; Zhu, L.; Wang, J.; Zhang, Z.; Yu, J.; Yang, Z. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 433, 133792. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.133792

  79. [79]

      Zhu, Y.; Wang, S.; Miao, Z.; Liu, Y.; Chou, S. L. Small 2018, 14, 1801987. doi: 10.1002/smll.201801987

  80. [80]

      Barchasz, C.; Molton, F.; Duboc, C.; Lepretre, J. C.; Patoux, S.; Alloin, F. Anal. Chem. 2012, 84, 3973. doi: 10.1021/ac2032244

  81. [81]

      Xu, R.; Tang, H.; Zhou, Y.; Wang, F.; Wang, H.; Shao, M.; Li, C.; Wei, Z. D. Chem. Sci. 2022, 13, 6224. doi: 10.1039/d2sc01353c

  82. [82]

      Cuisinier, M.; Hart, C.; Balasubramanian, M.; Garsuch, A.; Nazar, L. F. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1401801. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201401801

  83. [83]

      Tong, C.; Chen, H.; Jiang, S.; Li, L.; Shao, M.; Li, C.; Wei, Z. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2023, 15, 1175. doi: 10.1021/acsami.2c18594

  84. [84]

      Wujcik, K. H.; Pascal, T. A.; Pemmaraju, C.; Devaux, D.; Stolte, W. C.; Balsara, N. P.; Prendergast, D. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1500285. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201500285

  85. [85]

      Wang, C.; Ma, Y.; Du, X.; Zhang, H.; Xu, G.; Cui, G. Battery Energy 2022, 1, 20220010. doi: 10.1002/bte2.20220010

  86. [86]

      Liang, X.; Kwok, C. Y.; Lodi-Marzano, F.; Pang, Q.; Cuisinier, M.; Huang, H.; Hart, C. J.; Houtarde, D.; Kaup, K.; Nazar, L. F.; et al. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1501636. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201501636

  87. [87]

      Wang, S.; Liao, J.; Yang, X.; Liang, J.; Sun, Q.; Liang, J.; Zhao, F.; Koo, A.; Kong, F.; Sun, X. L.; et al. Nano Energy 2019, 57, 230. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.12.020

  88. [88]

      Hua, W.; Li, H.; Pei, C.; Xia, J.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, C.; Lv, W.; Tao, Y.; Jiao, Y.; Zhang, B.; et al. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, e2101006. doi: 10.1002/adma.202101006

  89. [89]

      Wang, J.; Jia, L.; Zhong, J.; Xiao, Q.; Wang, C.; Zang, K.; Liu, H.; Zheng, H.; Luo, J.; Yang, J.; et al. Energy Storage Mater. 2019, 18, 246. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2018.09.006

  90. [90]

      Feng, J.; Yi, H.; Lei, Z.; Wang, J.; Zeng, H.; Deng, Y.; Wang, C. J. Energy Chem. 2021, 56, 171. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2020.07.060

  91. [91]

      Li, Z.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, C.; Ueno, K.; Yasuda, T.; Tatara, R.; Dokko, K.; Watanabe, M. Nanoscale 2015, 7, 14385. doi: 10.1039/C5NR03201F

  92. [92]

      Chen, S.; Dai, F.; Gordin, M. L.; Yu, Z.; Gao, Y.; Song, J.; Wang, D. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 4231. doi: 10.1002/anie.201511830

  93. [93]

      Zhao, M.; Li, B. Q.; Chen, X.; Xie, J.; Yuan, H.; Huang, J. Q. Chem 2020, 6, 3297. doi: 10.1016/j.chempr.2020.09.015

  94. [94]

      Li, G.; Wang, X.; Seo, M. H.; Li, M.; Ma, L.; Yuan, Y.; Wu, T.; Yu, A.; Wang, S.; Lu, J.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 705. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-03116-z

  95. [95]

      Zhao, C. X.; Li, X. Y.; Zhao, M.; Chen, Z. X.; Song, Y. W.; Chen, W. J.; Liu, J. N.; Wang, B.; Zhang, X. Q.; Chen, C. M.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2021, 143, 19865. doi: 10.1021/jacs.1c09107

  96. [96]

      Guo, C.; Liu, M.; Gao, G. K.; Tian, X.; Zhou, J.; Dong, L. Z.; Li, Q.; Chen, Y.; Li, S. L.; Lan, Y. Q. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 134, e202113315. doi: 10.1002/ange.202113315

  97. [97]

      Kaiser, M. R.; Chou, S.; Liu, H. K.; Dou, S. X.; Wang, C.; Wang, J. Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1700449. doi: 10.1002/adma.201700449

  98. [98]

      Lin, Y.; Huang, S.; Zhong, L.; Wang, S.; Han, D.; Ren, S.; Xiao, M.; Meng, Y. Energy Storage Mater. 2021, 34, 128. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2020.09.009

  99. [99]

      Gao, H.; Ning, S.; Lin, J.; Kang, X. Energy Storage Mater. 2021, 40, 312. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.05.027

  100. [100]

       Dong, Q.; Wang, T.; Gan, R.; Fu, N.; Li, C.; Wei, Z. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 20596. doi: 10.1021/acsami.0c04554

  101. [101]

       Li, B. Q.; Kong, L.; Zhao, C. X.; Jin, Q.; Chen, X.; Peng, H. J.; Qin, J. L.; Chen, J. X.; Yuan, H.; Zhang, Q.; Huang, J. Q. InfoMat 2019, 1, 533. doi: 10.1002/inf2.12056

•