English

Spatially Controlled Two-dimensional Heterostructures via Solution-phase Growth

• LIU Qiang ,
• WANG Xiaoshan ,
• WANG Jialiang ,
• HUANG Xiao ^,

• Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China

Author Bio: Xiao Huang received her bachelor's degree from the School of Materials Science and Engineering at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore in 2006 and completed her PhD in 2011 under the supervision of Prof. Hua Zhang and Prof. Freddy Boey. She is currently a professor at the Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing Tech University. Her research interest includes the synthesis and applications of two-dimensional nanomaterial-based hybrids;

Corresponding author: HUANG Xiao, iamxhuang@njtech.edu.cn

• Received Date: 05 November 2018
  Accepted Date: 28 November 2018
  Revised Date: 27 November 2018
  Available Online: 15 October 2019
• Fund Project:

  The project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51322202)

Abstract: The research in two-dimensional (2D) materials, such as graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) and black phosphorus, has been further flourished with the recent emergence of heterostructures composed of dissimilar 2D materials. The interfacing/coupling between different constituent components in a heterostructure has given rise to interesting phenomena and useful properties. For example, depending on the type of 2D materials, the distance and the kind of bonding between them, as well as the crystalline property of the hetero-interface, the interface may provide charge traps, exciton recombination centers, or bridges for effective charge/energy transfer. It has also been found that the spatial arrangement in addition to the composition of the constituents is an important factor influencing the overall properties of the heterostructures. Although many methods, such as dry transfer and vapor-phased growth are able to yield heterostructures from pristine or highly crystalline 2D crystals with spatial control, such as vertical heterostructures and lateral heterostructures, these methods are generally not scalable, which has restricted the use of the obtained heterostructures mostly to fundamental studies. The solution-phased synthesis methods, such as solvothermal/hydrothermal synthesis, electrochemical deposition and hot-injection method, may be more suitable for mass production of functional heterostructures despite the relatively low product quality. In the past couple of years, a diverse kinds of hetero/hybrid structures of 2D materials have been prepared successfully in wet-chemical processes. However, precise control over the geometric arrangement of the constituent components has been challenging in solution. Currently, four types of heterostructures including 2D crystals grown on a larger 2D template, vertical heterostructures, lateral heterostructures, and core-shell heterostructures have been prepared in solution. For the first type, flexible 2D nanosheets such as graphene and monolayer TMDs are used as synthesis templates to support the nucleation and growth of other 2D crystals. For vertical heterostructures, relatively rigid nanoplates are used to allow continuous deposition of 2D layers of other materials to form sandwich-like structures. The formation of lateral heterostructures requires edge growth on existing 2D materials without basal deposition, and therefore other methods such as cation exchange can be used as alternative routes. The preparation of core-shell 2D heterostructures generally involves both epitaxial edge growth and basal deposition and has been realized in both metallic and semiconductor structures. In this review, these kinds of heterostructures based on 2D materials will be discussed in terms of their synthesis methods, properties and possible applications. In addition, we will discuss the challenges and possible opportunities in this research direction.

Key words:
• 2D heterostructure
•  /  Solution-phased synthesis
•  /  Spatial arrangement
•  /  Lateral heterostructure
•  /  Vertical heterostructure

• 1. [1]

     Rao, C. N.; Sood, A. K.; Subrahmanyam, K. S.; Govindaraj, A. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2009, 48, 7752. doi: 10.1002/anie.200901678

  2. [2]

     Georgakilas, V.; Otyepka, M.; Bourlinos, A. B.; Chandra, V.; Kim, N.; Kemp, K. C.; Hobza, P.; Zboril, R.; Kim, K. S. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 6156. doi: 10.1021/cr3000412

  3. [3]

     Wang, S. L.; Li, J.; Wang, S.; Wu, J. E.; Wong, T. I.; Foo, M. L.; Chen, W.; Wu, K.; Xu, G. Q. ACS Catal. 2017, 7, 6892. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.7b02331

  4. [4]

     Azam, A.; Kim, J.; Park, J.; Novak, T. G.; Tiwari, A. P.; Song, S. H.; Kim, B.; Jeon, S. Nano Lett. 2018, 18, 5646. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02150

  5. [5]

     Li, W.; Da, P.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Lin, X.; Gong, X.; Zheng, G. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 11770. doi: 10.1021/nn5053684

  6. [6]

     Yu, J. H.; Lee, H. R.; Hong, S. S.; Kong, D.; Lee, H. W.; Wang, H.; Xiong, F.; Wang, S.; Cui, Y. Nano Lett. 2015, 15, 1031. doi: 10.1021/nl503897h

  7. [7]

     Lin, X.; Liu, Y.; Wang, K.; Wei, C.; Zhang, W.; Yan, Y.; Li, Y. J.; Yao, J.; Zhao, Y. S. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 689. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b07823

  8. [8]

     王辉, 邹德春.物理化学学报, 2017, 33, 1027. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201702081Wang, H.; Zou, D. C. Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin. 2017, 33, 1027. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201702081

  9. [9]

     Van Druenen, M.; Davitt, F.; Collins, T.; Glynn, C.; O'Dwyer, C.; Holmes, J. D.; Collins, G. Chem. Mater. 2018, 30, 4667. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b01306

  10. [10]

      Song, L.; Ci, L.; Lu, H.; Sorokin, P. B.; Jin, C.; Ni, J.; Kvashnin, A. G.; Kvashnin, D. G.; Lou, J.; Yakobson, B. I.; et al. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 3209. doi: 10.1021/nl1022139

  11. [11]

      Ling, X.; Fang, W.; Lee, Y. H.; Araujo, P. T.; Zhang, X.; Rodriguez-Nieva, J. F.; Lin, Y.; Zhang, J.; Kong, J.; Dresselhaus, M. S. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 3033. doi: 10.1021/nl404610c

  12. [12]

      Chen, Z.; Forman, A. J.; Jaramillo, T. F. J. Phys. Chem. C 2013, 117, 9713. doi: 10.1021/jp311375k

  13. [13]

      Henck, H.; Pierucci, D.; Fugallo, G.; Avila, J.; Cassabois, G.; Dappe, Y. J.; Silly, M. G.; Chen, C.; Gil, B.; Gatti, M.; et al. Phys. Rev. B 2017, 95, 085410. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.95.085410

  14. [14]

      Banszerus, L.; Schmitz, M.; Engels, S.; Dauber, J.; Oellers, M.; Haupt, F.; Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T.; Beschoten, B.; Stampfer, C. Sci. Adv. 2015, 1, 1. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1500222

  15. [15]

      Novoselov, K. S.; Fal'ko, V. I.; Colombo, L.; Gellert, P. R.; Schwab, M. G.; Kim, K. Nature 2012, 490, 192. doi: 10.1038/nature11458

  16. [16]

      Lv, R.; Robinson, J. A.; Schaak, R. E.; Sun, D.; Sun, Y.; Mallouk, T. E.; Terrones, M. Acc. Chem. Res. 2015, 48, 56. doi: 10.1021/ar5002846

  17. [17]

      Chhowalla, M.; Shin, H. S.; Eda, G.; Li, L. J.; Loh, K. P.; Zhang, H. Nat. Chem. 2013, 5, 263. doi: 10.1038/nchem.1589

  18. [18]

      Oh, G.; Kim, J. S.; Jeon, J. H.; Won, E.; Son, J. W.; Lee, D. H.; Kim, C. K.; Jang, J.; Lee, T.; et al. ACS Nano 2015, 9, 7515. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b02616

  19. [19]

      Miao, J.; Hu, W.; Guo, N.; Lu, Z.; Liu, X.; Liao, L.; Chen, P.; Jiang, T.; Wu, S.; Ho, J. C.; et al. Small 2014, 11, 936. doi: 10.1002/smll.201402312

  20. [20]

      Dean, C. R.; Young, A. F.; Meric, I.; Lee, C.; Wang, L.; Sorgenfrei, S.; Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T.; Kim, P.; Shepard, K. L.; et al. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2010, 5, 722. doi: 10.1038/nnano.2010.172

  21. [21]

      Gorbachev, R. V.; Geim, A. K.; Katsnelson, M. I.; Novoselov, K. S.; Tudorovskiy, T.; Grigorieva, I. V.; MacDonald, A. H.; Morozov, S. V.; Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T.; et al. Nat. Phys. 2012, 8, 896. doi: 10.1038/nphys2441

  22. [22]

      Britnell, L.; Gorbachev, R. V.; Jalil, R.; Belle, B. D.; Schedin, F.; Mishchenko, A.; Georgiou, T.; Katsnelson, M. I.; Eaves, L.; Morozov, S. V.; et al. Science 2012, 335, 947. doi: 10.1126/science.1218461

  23. [23]

      Suenaga, K.; Ji, H. G.; Lin, Y. C.; Vincent, T.; Maruyama, M.; Aji, A. S.; Shiratsuchi, Y.; Ding, D.; Kawahara, K.; Okada, S.; et al. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 10032. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04612

  24. [24]

      Tongay, S.; Fan, W.; Kang, J.; Park, J.; Koldemir, U.; Suh, J.; Narang, D. S.; Liu, K.; Ji, J.; Li, J.; et al. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 3185. doi: 10.1021/nl500515q

  25. [25]

      Li, M. Y.; Shi, Y.; Cheng, C. C.; Lu, L. S.; Lin, Y. C.; Tang, H. L.; Tsai, M. L.; Chu, C. W.; Wei, K. H.; He, J. H.; et al. Science 2015, 349, 524. doi: 10.1126/science.aab4097

  26. [26]

      Fu, L.; Sun, Y.; Wu, N.; Mendes, R. G.; Chen, L.; Xu, Z.; Zhang, T.; Rümmeli, M. H.; Rellinghaus, B.; Pohl, D.; et al. ACS Nano 2016, 10, 2063. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b06254

  27. [27]

      Wang, M.; Jang, S. K.; Jang, W. J.; Kim, M.; Park, S. Y.; Kim, S. W.; Kahng, S. J.; Choi, J. Y.; Ruoff, R. S.; Song, Y. J.; et al. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 2746. doi: 10.1002/adma.201204904

  28. [28]

      Han, S.; Yang, X.; Zhu, Y.; Tan, C.; Zhang, X.; Chen, J.; Huang, Y.; Chen, B.; Luo, Z.; Ma, Q.; et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 10486. doi: 10.1002/anie.201705617

  29. [29]

      Chen, X.; Huang, Z.; Ren, X.; Xu, G.; Zhou, J.; Tao, Y.; Qi, X.; Zhong, J. ChemNanoMat 2018, 4, 373. doi: 10.1002/cnma.201700392

  30. [30]

      Liu, X.; Wang, P.; Zhang, Q.; Huang, B.; Wang, Z.; Liu, Y.; Zheng, Z.; Dai, Y.; Qin, X.; Zhang, X. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 459, 422. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.08.024

  31. [31]

      Islam, M. A.; Kim, J. H.; Schropp, A.; Kalita, H.; Choudhary, N.; Weitzman, D.; Khondaker, S. I.; Oh, K. H.; Roy, T.; Chung, H. S.; et al. Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 6157. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b02776

  32. [32]

      Geim, A. K.; Grigorieva, I. V. Nature 2013, 499, 419. doi: 10.1038/nature12385

  33. [33]

      Novoselov, K. S.; Mishchenko, A.; Carvalho, A.; Castro Neto, A. H. Science 2016, 353, 6298. doi: 10.1126/science.aac9439

  34. [34]

      Lim, H.; Yoon, S. I.; Kim, G.; Jang, A. R.; Shin, H. S. Chem. Mater. 2014, 26, 4891. doi: 10.1021/cm502170q

  35. [35]

      Li, H.; Wu, X.; Liu, H.; Zheng, B.; Zhang, Q.; Zhu, X.; Wei, Z.; Zhuang, X.; Zhou, H.; Tang, W.; et al. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 961. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.6b07580

  36. [36]

      Wang, X.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, J.; Wang, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, J.; Zhu, Z.; Li, Z.; Liu, Y.; Hu, X.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 3611. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-06053-z

  37. [37]

      Gao, T.; Song, X.; Du, H.; Nie, Y.; Chen, Y.; Ji, Q.; Sun, J.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, Z. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 6835. doi: 10.1038/ncomms7835

  38. [38]

      Gong, Y.; Lin, J.; Wang, X.; Shi, G.; Lei, S.; Lin, Z.; Zou, X.; Ye, G.; Vajtai, R.; Yakobson, B. I.; et al. Nat. Mater. 2014, 13, 1135. doi: 10.1038/nmat4091

  39. [39]

      Lin, Z.; Yin, A.; Mao, J.; Xia, Y.; Kempf, N.; He, Q.; Wang, Y.; Chen, C. Y.; Zhang, Y.; Ozolins, V.; et al. Sci. Adv. 2016, 2, 9. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1600993

  40. [40]

      Shi, J.; Liu, M.; Wen, J.; Ren, X.; Zhou, X.; Ji, Q.; Ma, D.; Zhang, Y.; Jin, C.; Chen, H.; et al. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 7086. doi: 10.1002/adma.201503342

  41. [41]

      Wang, S.; Wang, X.; Warner, J. H. ACS Nano 2015, 9, 5246. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b00655

  42. [42]

      Haigh, S. J.; Gholinia, A.; Jalil, R.; Romani, S.; Britnell, L.; Elias, D. C.; Novoselov, K. S.; Ponomarenko, L. A.; Geim, A. K.; Gorbachev, R. Nat. Mater. 2012, 11, 764. doi: 10.1038/nmat3386

  43. [43]

      Britnell, L.; Ribeiro, R. M.; Eckmann, A.; Jalil, R.; Belle, B. D.; Mishchenko, A.; Kim, Y. J.; Gorbachev, R. V.; Georgiou, T.; Morozov, S. V.; et al. Science 2013, 340, 1311. doi: 10.1126/science.1235547

  44. [44]

      Nourbakhsh, A.; Zubair, A.; Dresselhaus, M. S.; Palacios, T. Nano Lett. 2016, 16, 1359. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04791

  45. [45]

      Dean, C.; Young, A. F.; Wang, L.; Meric, I.; Lee, G. H.; Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T.; Shepard, K.; Kim, P.; Hone, J. Solid State Commun. 2012, 152, 1275. doi: 10.1016/j.ssc.2012.04.021

  46. [46]

      Tanaka, T.; Ito, A.; Tajima, A.; Rokuta, E.; Oshima, C. Surf. Rev. Lett. 2003, 10, 721. doi: 10.1142/S0218625X03005529

  47. [47]

      Liu, Z.; Song, L.; Zhao, S.; Huang, J.; Ma, L.; Zhang, J.; Lou, J.; Ajayan, P. M. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 2032. doi: 10.1021/nl200464j

  48. [48]

      Shi, Y.; Zhou, W.; Lu, A. Y.; Fang, W.; Lee, Y. H.; Hsu, A. L.; Kim, S. M.; Kim, K. K.; Yang, H. Y.; Li, L. J.; et al. Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 2784. doi: 10.1021/nl204562j

  49. [49]

      Tan, C.; Chen, J.; Wu, X. J.; Zhang, H. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2018, 3, 17089. doi: 10.1038/natrevmats.2017.89

  50. [50]

      Yang, K.; Wang, X.; Li, H.; Chen, B.; Zhang, X.; Li, S.; Wang, N.; Zhang, H.; Huang, X.; Huang, W. Nanoscale 2017, 9, 5102. doi: 10.1039/c7nr01015j

  51. [51]

      Kang, J.; Sangwan, V. K.; Wood, J. D.; Hersam, M. C. Acc. Chem. Res. 2017, 50, 943. doi: 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00643

  52. [52]

      Kim, T. H.; Chung, D. Y.; Ku, J.; Song, I.; Sul, S.; Kim, D. H.; Cho, K. S.; Choi, B. L.; Min Kim, J.; Hwang, S.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 2637. doi: 10.1038/ncomms3637

  53. [53]

      Hu, G.; Kang, J.; Ng, L. W. T.; Zhu, X.; Howe, R. C. T.; Jones, C. G.; Hersam, M. C.; Hasan, T. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2018, 47, 3265. doi: 10.1039/c8cs00084k

  54. [54]

      Huang, X.; Li, S.; Huang, Y.; Wu, S.; Zhou, X.; Li, S.; Gan, C. L.; Boey, F.; Mirkin, C. A.; Zhang, H. Nat. Commun. 2011, 2, 292. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1291Zeng, Z.; Tan, C.; Huang, X.; Bao, S.;

  55. [55]

      Jiang, D.; Li, J.; Xing, C.; Zhang, Z.; Meng, S.; Chen, M. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7, 19234. doi: 10.1021/acsami.5b05118

  56. [56]

      Tan, C.; Zeng, Z.; Huang, X.; Rui, X.; Wu, X. J.; Li, B.; Luo, Z.; Chen, J.; Chen, B.; Yan, Q.; et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 54, 1841. doi: 10.1002/anie.201410890

  57. [57]

      Sun, D.; Schaak, R. E. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 817. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b04808

  58. [58]

      Pedetti, S.; Ithurria, S.; Heuclin, H.; Patriarche, G.; Dubertret, B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 16430. doi: 10.1021/ja509307m

  59. [59]

      Park, J.; Park, J.; Lee, J.; Oh, A.; Baik, H.; Lee, K. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 7996. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.8b02752

  60. [60]

      Yang, N.; Cheng, H.; Liu, X.; Yun, Q.; Chen, Y.; Li, B.; Chen, B.; Zhang, Z.; Chen, X.; Lu, Q.; et al. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1803234. doi: 10.1002/adma.201803234

  61. [61]

      Liu, H.; Liu, T.; Zhang, L.; Han, L.; Gao, C.; Yin, Y. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2015, 25, 5435. doi: 10.1002/adfm.201502366

  62. [62]

      Fan, Z.; Huang, X.; Han, Y.; Bosman, M.; Wang, Q.; Zhu, Y.; Liu, Q.; Li, B.; Zeng, Z.; Wu, J.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 6571. doi: 10.1038/ncomms7571

  63. [63]

      Yan, Y.; Shan, H.; Li, G.; Xiao, F.; Jiang, Y.; Yan, Y.; Jin, C.; Zhang, H.; Wu, J.; Yang, D. Nano Lett. 2016, 16, 7999. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b04524

  64. [64]

      Bu, L.; Zhang, N.; Guo, S.; Zhang, X.; Li, J.; Yao, J.; Wu, T.; Lu, G.; Ma, J. Y.; Su, D.; et al. Science 2016, 354, 1410. doi: 10.1126/science.aah6133

  65. [65]

      Khan, S.; Jiang, Z.; Premathilka, S. M.; Antu, A.; Hu, J.; Voevodin, A. A.; Roland, P. J.; Ellingson, R. J.; Sun, L. Chem. Mater. 2016, 28, 5342. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b01232

  66. [66]

      Min, Y.; Park, G.; Kim, B.; Giri, A.; Zeng, J.; Roh, J. W.; Kim, S. I.; Lee, K. H.; Jeong, U. ACS Nano 2015, 9, 6843. doi: 10.1021/nn507250r

  67. [67]

      Zhang, H. Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7, 797. doi: 10.1039/c3ee42620c

  68. [68]

      Huang, X.; Zeng, Z.; Bao, S.; Wang, M.; Qi, X.; Fan, Z.; Zhang, H. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 1444. doi: 10.1038/ncomms2472

  69. [69]

      Azizi, A.; Eichfeld, S.; Geschwind, G.; Zhang, K.; Jiang, B.; Mukherjee, D.; Hossain, L.; Piasecki, A. F.; Kabius, B.; Robinson, J. A.; et al. ACS Nano 2015, 9, 4882. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b01677

  70. [70]

      Li, M.; Zhu, Y.; Li, T.; Lin, Y.; Cai, H.; Li, S.; Ding, H.; Pan, N.; Wang, X. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2018, 5, 1828. doi: 10.1039/c8qi00251g

  71. [71]

      Song, X.; Sun, J.; Qi, Y.; Gao, T.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, Z. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1600541. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201600541

  72. [72]

      Zhang, Z.; Ji, X.; Shi, J.; Zhou, X.; Zhang, S.; Hou, Y.; Qi, Y.; Fang, Q.; Ji, Q.; Zhang, Y.; et al. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 4328. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b01537

  73. [73]

      Li, X.; Basile, L.; Huang, B.; Ma, C.; Lee, J.; Vlassiouk, I. V.; Puretzky, A. A.; Lin, M. W.; Yoon, M.; Chi, M.; et al. ACS Nano 2015, 9, 8078. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b01943

  74. [74]

      Chen, K.; Wan, X.; Xie, W.; Wen, J.; Kang, Z.; Zeng, X.; Chen, H.; Xu, J. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 6431. doi: 10.1002/adma.201502375

  75. [75]

      Tao, C.; Guolin, H.; Liangzhi, K.; Chen, W.; Jianxin, Z. Nanotechnology 2018, 29, 484003. doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aae0cf

  76. [76]

      Naylor, C. H.; Parkin, W. M.; Gao, Z.; Berry, J.; Zhou, S.; Zhang, Q.; McClimon, J. B.; Tan, L. Z.; Kehayias, C. E.; Zhao, M. Q.; et al. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 8619. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b03828

  77. [77]

      Pandya, R.; Chen, R. Y. S.; Cheminal, A.; Dufour, M.; Richter, J. M.; Thomas, T. H.; Ahmed, S.; Sadhanala, A.; Booker, E. P.; Divitini, G.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 14097. doi: 10.1021/jacs.8b05842

  78. [78]

      Acerce, M.; Voiry, D.; Chhowalla, M. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2015, 10, 313. doi: 10.1038/nnano.2015.40

  79. [79]

      Cho, S.; Kim, S.; Kim, J. H.; Zhao, J.; Seok, J.; Keum, D. H.; Baik, J.; Choe, D. H.; Chang, K. J.; Suenaga, K.; et al. Science 2015, 349, 625. doi: 10.1126/science.aab3175

  80. [80]

      Song, S.; Keum, D. H.; Cho, S.; Perello, D.; Kim, Y.; Lee, Y. H. Nano Lett. 2016, 16, 188. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03481

  81. [81]

      Rhodes, D.; Chenet, D. A.; Janicek, B. E.; Nyby, C.; Lin, Y.; Jin, W.; Edelberg, D.; Mannebach, E.; Finney, N.; Antony, A.; et al. Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 1616. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b04814

  82. [82]

      Eda, G.; Fujita, T.; Yamaguchi, H.; Voiry, D.; Chen, M.; Chhowalla, M. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 7311. doi: 10.1021/nn302422x

  83. [83]

      Tessier, M. D.; Mahler, B.; Nadal, B.; Heuclin, H.; Pedetti, S.; Dubertret, B. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 3321. doi: 10.1021/nl401538n

  84. [84]

      Mahler, B.; Nadal, B.; Bouet, C.; Patriarche, G.; Dubertret, B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 18591. doi: 10.1021/ja307944d

  85. [85]

      Lu, C. L.; Prasad, K. S.; Wu, H. L.; Ho, J. A. A.; Huang, M. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 14546. doi: 10.1021/ja105401p

  86. [86]

      Reiss, P.; Bleuse, J.; Pron, A. Nano Lett. 2002, 2, 781. doi: 10.1021/nl025596y

  87. [87]

      Habas, S. E.; Lee, H.; Radmilovic, V.; Somorjai, G. A.; Yang, P. Nat. Mater. 2007, 6, 692. doi: 10.1038/nmat1957

  88. [88]

      Niu, Z.; Cui, F.; Yu, Y.; Becknell, N.; Sun, Y.; Khanarian, G.; Kim, D.; Dou, L.; Dehestani, A.; Schierle-Arndt, K.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 7348. doi: 10.1021/jacs.7b02884

  89. [89]

      Talapin, D. V.; Koeppe, R.; Götzinger, S.; Kornowski, A.; Lupton, J. M.; Rogach, A. L.; Benson, O.; Feldmann, J.; Weller, H. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 1677. doi: 10.1021/nl034815s

  90. [90]

      Fan, Z.; Zhu, Y.; Huang, X.; Han, Y.; Wang, Q.; Liu, Q.; Huang, Y.; Gan, C. L.; Zhang, H. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 127, 5764. doi: 10.1002/ange.201500993

  91. [91]

      Xia, X.; Wang, Y.; Ruditskiy, A.; Xia, Y. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 6313. doi: 10.1002/adma.201302820

  92. [92]

      Sun, Y.; Mayers, B. T.; Xia, Y. Nano Lett. 2002, 2, 481. doi: 10.1021/nl025531v

  93. [93]

      Métraux, G. S.; Cao, Y. C.; Jin, R.; Mirkin, C. A. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 519. doi: 10.1021/nl034097+

  94. [94]

      Li, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhou, B.; Wang, F.; Miao, Y.; Wei, J.; Zhang, B.; Zhang, K. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2018, 20, 24109. doi: 10.1039/c8cp04337j

  95. [95]

      Dong, L.; Lou, J.; Shenoy, V. B. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 8242. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b03313

  96. [96]

      Li, F.; Wei, W.; Zhao, P.; Huang, B.; Dai, Y. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8, 5959. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b02841

  97. [97]

      Wong, J.; Jariwala, D.; Tagliabue, G.; Tat, K.; Davoyan, A. R.; Sherrott, M. C.; Atwater, H. A. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 7230. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b03148

  98. [98]

      Patel, M.; Kim, H. S.; Kim, J. Nanoscale 2017, 9, 15804. doi: 10.1039/c7nr03370b

  99. [99]

      Zhang, X, Shaoqing, X.; Haiyan, N.; Haoxin, M.; Xi, W.; Xiaofeng, G.; Kostya, O. Nanotechnology 2018, 29, 455707. doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aaddc5

  100. [100]

       Butler, S. Z.; Hollen, S. M.; Cao, L.; Cui, Y.; Gupta, J. A.; Gutiérrez, H. R.; Heinz, T. F.; Hong, S. S.; Huang, J.; Ismach, A. F.; et al. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 2898. doi: 10.1021/nn400280c

  101. [101]

       Wang, L.; Yang, P.; Liu, Y.; Fang, X.; Shi, X.; Wu, S.; Huang, L.; Li, H.; Huang, X.; Huang, W. Nanoscale 2017, 9, 9997. doi: 10.1039/c7nr03072j

•